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[22] [23] However, these mechanisms are primarily established in animal models with limited confirmation in human studies

This indicated a decrease in GAPDH activity and a concomitant diversion of glucose into the oxidative phase of the pentose phosphate pathway (PPP), a metabolic shift that, upon oxidative stress, helps restore NADPH levels and cellular reducing potential (Figure 1)

Process Biochem 41(12):24242428

NAD+ serves as an electron shuttle, accepting electrons (becoming NADH) during energy-producing reactions and donating them (returning to NAD) during energy-consuming processes

Against this backdrop, phase shifts or amplitude reductions in the prolactin rhythm have been proposed to promote a positive energy balance, weight gain, and ectopic fat deposition, thereby participating in obesity-related pathophysiological processes (63)